Desert pastoralists' negative and positive effects on rare wildlife in the Gobi.

In arid regions of the developing world, pastoralists and livestock commonly inhabit protected areas, resulting in human-wildlife conflict. Conflict is inextricably linked to the ecological processes shaping relationships between pastoralists and native herbivores and carnivores. To elucidate relationships underpinning human-wildlife conflict, we synthesized 15 years of ecological and ethnographic data from Ikh Nart Nature Reserve in Mongolia's Gobi steppe. The density of argali (Ovis ammon), the world's largest wild sheep, at Ikh Nart was among the highest in Mongolia, yet livestock were >90% of ungulate biomass and dogs >90% of large-carnivore biomass. For argali, pastoral activities decreased food availability, increased mortality from dog predation, and potentially increased disease risk. Isotope analyses indicated that livestock accounted for >50% of the diet of the majority of gray wolves (Canis lupus) and up to 90% of diet in 25% of sampled wolves (n = 8). Livestock composed at least 96% of ungulate prey in the single wolf pack for which we collected species-specific prey data. Interviews with pastoralists indicated that wolves annually killed 1-4% of Ikh Nart's livestock, and pastoralists killed wolves in retribution. Pastoralists reduced wolf survival by killing them, but their livestock were an abundant food source for wolves. Consequently, wolf density appeared to be largely decoupled from argali density, and pastoralists had indirect effects on argali that could be negative if pastoralists increased wolf density (apparent competition) or positive if pastoralists decreased wolf predation (apparent facilitation). Ikh Nart's argali population was stable despite these threats, but livestock are increasingly dominant numerically and functionally relative to argali. To support both native wildlife and pastoral livelihoods, we suggest training dogs to not kill argali, community insurance against livestock losses to wolves, reintroducing key native prey species to hotspots of human-wolf conflict, and developing incentives for pastoralists to reduce livestock density.

Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in Confiscated Telmatobius in Lima, Peru.

The Peruvian Andes are the home of 27 species of frogs of the genus Telmatobius, many of which are critically endangered. Illegal trade of adult frogs for purported medical properties likely represents the major threat facing these species. This activity, besides reducing their populations, may contribute to the dissemination of the fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), which causes chytridiomycosis, a disease posing a threat to many populations of amphibians. We screened frogs confiscated by the Administration of Forestry and Wildlife in Lima, Peru, for Bd. We used real-time PCR to diagnose Bd at the Laboratory of Wildlife, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Zootecnics, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, in Lima and Pisces Molecular Laboratory in Boulder, Colorado, US. Of 62 samples collected during this study, 60% (37) were PCR positive for Bd, confirming that illegal trade of amphibians can pose a risk for disseminating Bd.

Chytrid Fungus, Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis , in Wild Populations of the Lake Titicaca Frog, Telmatobius culeus, in Peru.

The Lake Titicaca frog (Telmatobius culeus) is critically endangered, primarily from overexploitation. However, additional threats, such as chytrid fungus ( Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis ), are poorly studied. We found moderate levels of chytrid infection using quantitative PCR. Our results enhance our understanding of chytrid tolerance to high pH and low water temperature.

Interference competition: odours of an apex predator and conspecifics influence resource acquisition by red foxes.

Apex predators can impact smaller predators via lethal effects that occur through direct killing, and non-lethal effects that arise when fear-induced behavioural and physiological changes reduce the fitness of smaller predators. A general outcome of asymmetrical competition between co-existing predator species is that larger predators tend to suppress the abundances of smaller predators. Here, we investigate interference effects that an apex predator, the dingo (Canis dingo), has on the acquisition of food and water by the smaller red fox (Vulpes vulpes), by exposing free-ranging foxes to the odour of dingoes and conspecifics in an arid environment. Using giving-up densities we show that foxes foraged more apprehensively at predator-odour treatments than unscented controls, but their food intake did not differ between dingo- and fox-odour treatments. Using video analysis of fox behaviour at experimental water stations we show that foxes spent more time engaged in exploration behaviour at stations scented with fox odour and spent more time drinking at water stations scented with dingo odour. Our results provide support for the idea that dingo odour exerts a stronger interference effect on foxes than conspecific odour, but suggest that the odours of both larger dingoes and unfamiliar conspecifics curtailed foxes' acquisition of food resources.

Space and habitat use by wild Bactrian camels in the Transaltai Gobi of southern Mongolia.

Wild Bactrian camels (Camela ferus) are listed as Critically Endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and only persist in some of the most remote locations in northern China and southern Mongolia. Although the species has been recognized as an umbrella species for the fragile central Asian desert ecosystem and has been high on the conservation agenda, little is known about the species' habitat requirements, with most information coming from anecdotal sightings and descriptive studies. We compiled the only available telemetry data from wild camels worldwide. Seven wild camels, which were followed for 11-378 monitoring days, covered a total range of 28,410 km2, with individual annual ranges being >12,000 km2 for three animals followed over a year. Camels reacted strongly to capture events, moving up to 64 km from the capture site within a day, whereas normal average daily straight line distances were 3.0-6.4 km/day. Camels showed a preference for intermediate productivity values (NDVI, habitat type) and landscape parameters (distance to water, elevation) and an avoidance of steep slopes. Our telemetry results suggest that wild camels still range throughout the entire Great Gobi A Strictly Protected Area (SPA), are highly mobile, and very sensitive to human disturbance. Their habitat preference may be a trade-off between dietary and safety requirements. Small sample size did not allow the development of a full habitat model testing all variables simultaneously and we urgently call for more data from additional wild camels as a foundation for evidence driven conservation actions.

The crucial contribution of veterinarians to conservation biology.

Conservation biology is a relatively new (began in the 1980s), value-based discipline predicated on the belief that biological diversity-from genes to populations to species to communities to ecosystems-is good and extinction is bad. Conservation biology grew from the recognition that the Earth has entered its sixth great extinction event, one that differs from previous great extinctions in that a single species-Homo sapiens-has caused this biodiversity crisis. A diverse, interacting set of variables drive current extinctions. As such, to succeed, conservation efforts usually require broad-based, interdisciplinary approaches. Conservationists increasingly recognize the importance of contributions by veterinary science, among many other disciplines, to collaborative efforts aimed at stemming the loss of biodiversity. We argue that, to improve success rates, many wildlife conservation programs must incorporate veterinarians as part of an interdisciplinary team to assess and address problems. Ideally, veterinarians who participate in conservation would receive specialized training and be willing to work as partners as part of a larger team of experts who effectively integrate their work rather than work independently (i.e., work as interdisciplinary, as opposed to multidisciplinary, teams, respectively). In our opinion, the most successful and productive projects involve interdisciplinary teams involving both biological and nonbiological specialists. Some researchers hold multiple degrees in biology and veterinary medicine or the biological and social sciences. These experts can often offer unique insight. We see at least 3 major areas in which veterinarians can immediately offer great assistance to conservation efforts: (1) participation in wildlife capture and immobilization, (2) leadership or assistance in addressing wildlife health issues, and (3) leadership or assistance in addressing wildlife disease issues, including using wildlife as sentinels to identify new and emerging diseases or epidemics of old diseases. We cover each of these main topics in detail.

Veterinary assessment for free-ranging Eurasian Black Vulture (Aegypius monachus) chicks in southeastern Mongolia.

Working as a veterinarian in remote field locations can be physically and intellectually challenging. A collaborative multi-disciplinary approach is often required for successful data collection. Technologies and methodologies frequently need to be modified to work in these harsh field environments. This article will describe a collaboration in southeastern Mongolia collecting blood for sera analytes and physiologic data from Eurasian Black Vulture (Aegypius monachus) chicks during a tagging operation.

The value of enrichment to reintroduction success.

Reintroduction attempts have faced low, albeit improving, success rates, especially for threatened and endangered species reintroduced from captivity to the wild. This is not only a concern for conservation, as the low success of reintroduction also implies an animal welfare issue for the individuals concerned. Success rates are particularly low for species that live in complex social structures, require greater training during development, and exhibit higher levels of intelligence. Aside from mitigating the original cause of a species extirpation from an area, behavior factors arguably represent the most important aspect influencing an animal's survival following reintroduction. Indeed, we previously recommended using behavioral indicators for determining relative reintroduction success, especially as practitioners develop and compare protocols or if survivorship is difficult to gauge. Strategic enrichment programs targeted toward developing specific skills important for survival in the wild promise to improve reintroduction success by providing individuals with opportunities to develop and improve behavioral skills, such as avoiding predation, foraging (especially for predators and primates), interacting in social groups, courtship and mating, habitat selection, and learning movement and migration routes. Enrichment also improves the physical condition of most individuals, which should also increase reintroduction success. Last but not least, such programs offer the prospect of improved animal welfare both pre- and post-release. We explore how behavioral enrichment has influenced reintroduction success and welfare in a variety of different species.